We help improve your debate skills with our rundown of the 30 most common logical fallacies. Not even sure what a logical fallacy is? Stick with us, we’ll cover the basics in this Study Starter.
What is a logical fallacy?
Nothing is more frustrating than debating somebody who has no idea what they’re talking about. Well, actually there is. It’s even more frustrating to debate somebody when you, yourself, have no idea what you’re talking about. So what must you do to avoid these frustrations? You can start by getting to know the most common logical fallacies.
A logical fallacy is an argument based on faulty reasoning. While fallacies come in a variety of forms, they all share the same destructive power, namely, to dismantle the validity of your entire argument. Whether you’re building a case for a position paper, engaging your classmates in a lively debate, or storing up pithy political one-liners for your next Twitter war, you need to know these common logical fallacies.
Logic describes the rules and principles for making correct arguments and avoiding incorrect arguments. Logic is a key branch of philosophy, and logic students learn how to analyze and appraise arguments. In logic, certain valid rules of inference must be acknowledged and adhered to in order for an argument to be considered legitimate. Logic attempts to take us from truth to truth. In deductive logic, the truth of premises guarantees the truth of conclusions. In other types of logical inference (such as with inductive logic), the point is to make the conclusion more probable based on the truth of the premises.
Logic acknowledges the shared truths among us and guides us to uncover new truths. Logic is therefore the very fabric of meaningful debate. Without logic, human inquiry grinds to a standstill because we have no reliable way to build our knowledge based on previously uncovered truths.
Logical fallacies are bogus modes of reasoning that can appear legitimate but in fact violate accepted rules of inference. Logical fallacies can be tricky. By masquerading as legitimate arguments, they can fool us into thinking that they are legitimate. But closer inspection reveals the critical flaw at the heart of any given logical fallacy. Such flaws are not always easily detected, especially in the heat of debate.
To confound matters, logical fallacies often have an element of truth. But the truth gets misused by faulty logic so that the desired conclusion is not properly justified. A fallacy may even reach a true conclusion, but by arriving there in the wrong way, render the conclusion unconvincing. Moreover, fallacies aren’t always driven by the desire to deceive or manipulate. Fallacies can also be rooted in bias, emotion, or misunderstanding, which can sometimes be less immediately apparent.
Why are logical fallacies so common? The answer is simple: they work! To say that logical fallacies work does not mean that they help us gain knowledge or insight into truths about the world. Rather, it means that bogus types of reasoning are often amazingly effective at getting people to believe things that they shouldn’t believe.
Lawyers, politicians, and marketers often have the keen ability to use fallacious arguments as weapons. This is rarely an accident. Unfortunately, when people want to believe something, they’ll often enlist logical fallacies to help convince themselves and others of its truth. Clear, careful, and critical thinking, therefore, requires calling out logical fallacies.
Broadly speaking, logical fallacies fall into two categories:
Detecting the flaws in an argument is important. Sure, identifying the flaws in an argument can be personally gratifying by helping you win a debate. But logical fallacies do a lot of damage. They threaten to undermine shared truths and advance unwarranted conclusions that rest on flawed foundations. In an age of fake news, they help fake news to proliferate.
This is your chance to spot the devil in the details. Learn how not to be deceived, because, at the risk of sounding like an alarmist, there are people out there trying to deceive you. If the purpose of debate is to illuminate the truth at the center of a discussion, logical fallacies are the smoke and shadows that obscure this truth, keeping the participants on every side of the issue from seeing clearly.
Learn these logical fallacies. Call them out when you see them. Avoid committing them yourself. This is one of the most powerful actions you can take toward preserving and advancing truth.
Otherwise, read on and find out which logical fallacies you’re most likely to encounter in a debate.
An abbreviated phrase meaning “to the person,” argumentum ad hominem refers to an argument which relies on an attack directed at the speaker rather than the substance of the speaker’s argument. This rhetorical strategy is often fallacious in nature, employing an approach designed to discredit the character, substance or motive of a person in lieu of deconstructing the person’s claims.
Fun Fact: An ad hominem observation is not always fallacious. If the qualities attributed to the speaker are provable and relevant to the argument, an ad hominem observation may be a useful point of strategy. For instance:
The argumentum ad verecundiam, sometimes also called an “argument from authority,” describes an argument in which a speaker claims that their view is endorsed by a relevant authority figure. This claim of endorsement is presented as a sufficient argument unto itself, relieving the speaker of presenting any additional evidence to further their case. An alternate form of this fallacy is sometimes called the appeal to false or unqualified authority. In this case, the speaker might cite an individual with some measure of clout, but generally in an area outside the subject of the given argument. For instance, one might fallaciously cite a medical doctor’s opinion about politics simply because she is a very smart doctor.
Fun Fact: If both parties in a debate agree that the cited individual is a relevant authority figure, and that the facts stated in reference to this figure are accurately attributed, this appeal may not be fallacious. For this reason, there is some debate about whether or not the appeal to authority is always fallacious. However, in contexts such as science, where authority must be challenged in order for new findings to be yielded, any such appeal that comes without the support of empirical evidence should be dismissed as fallacious.
Argumentum ad ignorantiam, also sometimes referred to as an “argument from ignorance,” occurs when a speaker presents an argument as fact simply because there is no readily available evidence to prove the contrary. This fallacy is based on a false dichotomy which posits that what we don’t know must not be true. This strategy incorrectly assumes that a lack of sufficient evidence is concrete proof that something can’t be true, a position which precludes the possibility that things may be unknown or even unknowable.
Fun Fact: Philosopher John Locke is sometimes credited with first coining the phrase in his 1690 text “On Reason.” Here, he explains that one way “men ordinarily use to drive others and force them to submit to their judgments, and receive their opinion in debate, is to require the adversary to admit what they allege as a proof, or to assign a better.”
The argumentum ad misericordiam is a strategy in which one speaker appeals to the emotions of another by exploiting their feelings of guilt or pity. This strategy of debate seeks to validate one’s argument by playing on the sympathy or sensitivity of the other. The aim is to invoke an array of emotions that might cloud the individual’s ability to approach the argument in a rational way. It should also be noted though that the invocation of empathy is not by itself evidence that a fallacy has occurred. If we take, for instance, commercials which feature starving people in developing countries, the goal of invoking our pity is not to deceive but to connect real human emotion with a call to action. An appeal to any type of emotion is not by itself fallacious, but becomes fallacious when combined with a faulty premise.
Fun Fact: The appeal to sympathy is sometimes also referred to as the Galileo argument, so-named in honor of the Italian astronomer who lived out his final decade under house arrest for scientific claims that were deemed heretical by the Catholic Church. Presumably, what is meant by this attribution is that one’s sympathy for Galileo’s ordeal does not necessarily confer agreement with Galileo’s theories. There is no recorded instance in which the pioneering astronomer employed such a rhetorical strategy on his own behalf.
The argumentum ad populum, also sometimes referred to as the common belief fallacy, refers to an instance in which a speaker asserts that something is true because many people believe it to be so. This is a fallacy in which the speaker, in lieu of providing evidence to support an argument, asserts that something is demonstrably true only because a majority of people believe it to be the case. Another form of this fallacy is called the bandwagon fallacy, so named for its implication that one should adopt a view or opinion (i.e. join the bandwagon) because so many others believe it to be so. One more variation, the appeal to elite status, suggests that you might want to share a view or position because it is held by an elite set of individuals. For instance, a well-known recruitment slogan “The few. The proud. The Marines.” both conferred elite status upon the Marines and in doing so, implied that you might want to join this select group.
Fun Fact: If an argument is actually centered on matters of public or democratic interest, the appeal to popular opinion may be a logically sound strategy. For instance, if provable, you may argue that because 9 of 10 dentists recommend Crest toothpaste, your dentist is likely to view Crest as a superior brand of toothpaste. This would not be a fallacy.
The argumentum ad lapidem is a logical fallacy in which one speaker dismisses the argument of another as being outright absurd and patently untrue without presenting further evidence to support this dismissal. This constitutes a rhetorical effort to exploit a lack of readily available evidence to support an initial argument without necessarily presenting sufficient evidence to the contrary. By its very nature, Appeal to the Stone preempts further debate. It insulates itself against counter-argument by declining to present sufficient evidence to be rebutted. A fallacy relying on inductive reasoning, appeal to the stone is a particularly vulnerable fallacy in contexts where new evidence may eventually reveal itself.
Fun Fact: This fallacy is drawn from a pretty entertaining origin story. 18th century English writer Dr. Samuel Johnson and his future biographer, Scottish-born James Boswell , discussed a theory offered by Church of Ireland bishop, George Berkeley . Berkeley had claimed, through the concept of subjective idealism, that reality and material objects are dependent upon an individual’s perceptions. Both Johnson and Boswell were firm in their shared rejection of this idea. However, according to Boswell’s biography of Johnson, “I observed, that though we are satisfied his doctrine is not true, it is impossible to refute it. I never shall forget the alacrity with which Johnson answered, striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone, till he rebounded from it, ‘I refute it thus.’”
Also sometimes called the fallacy of the single cause, or causal reductionism, this is a logical fallacy in which the speaker presumes that because there is a single clear explanation for an effect, that this must be the only cause. This fallacy makes the incorrect and reductive assumption that one cause precludes that possibility of multiple causes. This is a false dilemma, one which requires the speaker to ignore the possibility of other overlapping explanations and to consequently draw an unwarranted connection between a perceived cause and effect.
Fun Fact: In essence, causal fallacy is the technical term for the exceedingly common phenomenon of “jumping to conclusions.” This is simply worth noting because it is, in many ways, a natural human behavior to which we are all predisposed at one time or another—as you await the results of a medical test; ponder the whereabouts of your missing wallet; or question the reasons somebody hasn’t texted you back even though you can clearly see that the message was delivered. In other words, uncertainty and human emotion make us all vulnerable to the occasional logical fallacy.
Circulus in probando in Latin, this logical fallacy occurs when the premise of an argument is dependent upon acceptance of the conclusion, and the conclusion is dependent upon acceptance of the argument. In other words, both the argument and the conclusion are left wanting further proof. In circular reasoning, the originating premise lacks grounding in independent evidence, and therefore brings to the discussion no further proof to support the conclusion.
Fun Fact: Circular reasoning forms the basis for the famous literary phrase “Catch-22,” which is drawn from the Joseph Heller novel of the same name. According to the satirical novel, the military maintains a policy of discharging soldiers who can demonstrate insanity. However, the military also recognizes that any sane person would desire a discharge to avoid the horrors of war. Therefore, any person seeking a discharge on the grounds of insanity is logically too sane to be eligible for discharge. This absurd contradiction is what is known, according to the author, as a “Catch-22.”
Sometimes called the Motte-and-Bailey fallacy, this is a logical fallacy in which a speaker blurs the line between two distinct positions which have some overlapping qualities. By blurring this line, it becomes possible to create an association between one position which is modest (Motte), and therefore easily defended, and a position which is likely to be more extreme (Bailey), and which is therefore more difficult to defend. By equating these positions, the speaker is presenting a false equivalence, thus forcing the other speaker to move to the defense of a position which is more difficult to defend.
Fun Fact: The term Motte-and-Bailey was coined by philosopher Nicholas Shackell , who described the phrase as a reference to medieval castle defense systems, explaining that “A Motte and Bailey castle is a medieval system of defence in which a stone tower on a mound (the Motte) is surrounded by an area of land (the Bailey) which in turn is encompassed by some sort of a barrier such as a ditch. the Bailey, represents a philosophical doctrine or position with similar properties: desirable to its proponent but only lightly defensible. The Motte is the defensible but undesired position to which one retreats when hard pressed.”
The sunk cost fallacy proceeds from the faulty logic that the expenditure of past resources justifies the continued expenditure of resources. This fallacy contradicts rational choice theory, which holds that in economics, the only rational decisions are those which are made based on future expenses, rather than past expenses. In a broader sense, this fallacy can apply to a wide range of scenarios including the sunk cost of having remained in an unhappy relationship, having engaged in a failed war, or having dedicated years to an unsatisfying job. In each case, one might commit a fallacy by determining that past commitment to any of these scenarios necessitates a continuation of the status quo.
Fun Fact: A “sunk cost” is essentially the opposite of “cutting one’s losses.” For instance, in a hand of poker, a player may determine that while he is likely to lose based on his cards, he has already spent too much money on the hand to fold. This is a demonstration of the sunk cost fallacy. By contrast, the same player may recognize that while he has already spent a sum of money on this losing hand, he can still fold and hold on to his remaining funds. This is called cutting one’s losses.
Also sometimes referred to as a “false dichotomy,” this is a fallacy in which one incorrectly places limitations on one’s possible options in a given scenario. This fallacy rests on the false premise that one is faced with a binary choice when it’s possible that multiple options are available. In essence, this occurs when one reduces the array of available options and alternatives to a simplified either-or condition.
Fun Fact: The false dichotomy conflates “contraries” with “contradictories.” With contradictories, it is true that one or the other must be true. For instance, if we say somebody is alive, it means they must not be dead, and vice versa. By contrast, contraries are statements in which, at most, one such statement must be true, but in which it is also possible that neither statement is true. For instance, if we say that somebody “is not here,” we can’t definitively conclude that the person must be at home. It’s possible that the person is at home, at the supermarket, or aboard the international space station. We don’t know. From the statement, all we can conclude is that the person is not here. The false dichotomy overlooks the full array of possibilities.
Also sometimes referred to as the fallacy of origins, this is a fallacy which presumes that an argument holds no merit simply because of its source. In this instance, the history or origin of the source is used to dismiss an argument, in lieu of using actual rhetoric to address the substance of the argument.
Fun Fact: In one of the earliest recorded cases of usage, author Mortimer J. Adler characterized this fallacy as “the substitution of psychology for logic.”
Also sometimes called a faulty generalization, this is a form of argument which arrives at a conclusion about numerous instances of a phenomenon based on evidence which is limited to only one or a few instances of said phenomenon. This denotes that one might attempt to generalize the explanation for an occurrence based on an unreliably small sample set.
Fun Fact: The hasty or faulty generalization is the fallacy which is most at play when we apply stereotypes to full demographic groups based on anecdotal evidence or limited interaction with only select representation from that group. For instance, a person who owned a pet cat with a bad temper might make the stereotypical generalization that all cats have bad tempers.
A loaded question is one in which the speaker has employed rhetorical manipulation in order to limit the possible array of answers that another speaker can rationally provide. The fallacy is couched in the phrasing of such a question, which presupposes certain facts that may not be true or proven, within the content of the question. The fallacy occurs when that question is underscored by a presupposition which is not agreed upon by the person to whom the question is posed.
Fun Fact: This form of fallacy is distinct from “begging the question,” which presumes the conclusion before the question is answered. By contrast, this strategy traps the respondent into admitting a fact which is implied by the question. Simply by virtue of answering the question, the respondent has unwittingly conceded the point.
In full Latin phrasing, Post hoc ergo propter hoc means “after this, therefore because of this.” Instances of this fallacy occur when one incorrectly attributes a cause and effect relationship between two phenomena in the absence of proof that one causes the other. The flaw in this strategy is that it draws a singular relationship between a premise and a conclusion without considering an array of variables that might disqualify the possibility of such a relationship.
Fun Fact: A famous phrase often used as a counterpoint to the Post Hoc fallacy is that “correlation does not equal causation.” This denotes that just because two phenomena sometimes, or even frequently, appear in connection with one another does not mean that one causes the other.
The red herring fallacy refers to an instance in which one speaker attempts to divert the attention of another speaker from the primary argument by offering a point which may be true, but which does not actually further the substance of a counterargument. So named for the implication that the odoriferous fish in question might “throw one off the scent” of the actual argument itself, the red herring will typically support a conclusion with a fact which does not actually provide substantive support.
Fun Fact: While the red herring can take the form of a logical fallacy, it is also a familiar literary and cinematic device which can be employed to misdirect the attention of the reader or viewer. This is a commonly employed tactic in mysteries, suspense thrillers, and other narratives that conclude with unexpected plot twists. For instance, in a murder mystery, the author might offer a number of clues implying that an innocent character is the killer while the actual killer hides in plain sight.
Sometimes also called the continuum fallacy, this fallacy occurs when a speaker claims that a single step taken in a particular direction will inevitably lead to a series of subsequent and unintended events. This argument is used to draw a series of unforeseen and unprovable conclusions based on a single provable premise. The flaw in the slippery slope argument is that it typically forecasts an extreme range of likely subsequent events, thereby excluding the possibility that a series of more moderate events might play out instead.
Fun Fact: In the literary context, “slippery slope” is sometimes referred to as “the camel’s nose.” This refers to a metaphor taken from an allegory published by Geoffrey Nunberg in 1858, which tells the story of a miller who allows a camel to stick its nose through the doorway of his bedroom. Bit by bit, the camel moves other body parts into the room until he is entirely inside. Once this occurs, the camel refuses to leave.
The strawman fallacy occurs when a speaker appears to refute the argument of another speaker by replacing that argument with a similar but far flimsier premise. In essence, the speaker is “setting up a straw man” which can then be easily knocked down by a counterargument. The flaw in this rhetorical approach is that it fails to actually engage the original argument, in essence changing the subject so as to face a more manageable argument.
Fun Fact: In the U.K., the strawman argument is also sometimes referred to as “Aunt Sally,” so named for a pub game in which competitors will hurl sticks at a “skittle” balanced atop a post. The individual who knocks this precariously balanced object from its post is the winner.
Tu quoque, which translates to “you also,” is a fallacy in which one speaker discredits another by attacking their behavior as being inconsistent with their argument. This is a specious attack line because it seizes on certain characteristics presented by the speaker rather than on the merits of the speaker’s actual argument. Similar to ad hominem in that it resorts to a personal line of attack rather than a rhetorical argument, the primary distinction is that this personal attack is framed as having a direct connection to the argument itself. This framing is not designed to disqualify the speaker for who they are (as with ad hominem) but for how they act, and consequently, how this action appears to diverge from the premise of the speaker’s argument.
Fun Fact: The high level of polarization in today’s American political discourse leads frequently to a form of the tu quoque fallacy referred to as “whataboutism.” This form of the fallacy occurs when one speaker, in lieu of responding directly to an argument, accuses another speaker of taking a hypocritical position. Take, for instance, a debate over gun control between a Republican and a Democrat:
Sometimes also referred to as a converse error, this is a fallacy which occurs when one assumes that, because a conditional statement is true, then the converse of that statement must also be true. In such instances, this assumption is based on a failure to consider other possible antecedents which might also be used to offer true conditional statements. In other words, the speaker has failed to consider the full range of possible conditions for that which is consequent.
In the case of Affirming the Disjunct, also sometimes referred to as the false exclusionary disjunct, it is incorrectly presumed that an “or” condition excludes the possibility that “either/or” could be true. In other words, when a speaker makes a statement indicating “A or B,” the fallacy occurs when the responding speaker assumes “A, therefore, not B.” This is a fallacy of equivocation in which one assumes that because one disjunct is true, the other must be untrue.
Fun Fact: Whereas Affirming the Disjunct is a logical fallacy, it should not be conflated with the disjunctive syllogism which is actually a valid form of argument. An example of an accurate disjunctive syllogism states the following:
This is a valid form of inference.
The possibiliter ergo probabiliten refers to a fallacy in which one conflates possibility with probability, or in which one conflates probability with certainty. At the heart of this inductive fallacy is the error in presuming that because there is evidence that a thing is possible, one can take for granted either its probability or its certainty.
Fun Fact: Murphy’s Law famously states that anything which can go wrong, will go wrong. This is a playful and purposeful manifestation of the Appeal to Probability Fallacy.
Also redundantly known as the fallacy fallacy, this fallacy occurs when one speaker identifies a fallacy in the argument of another and uses it in order to assert that the conclusion must be false. This fallacy incorrectly assesses that a fallacy within the argument of another necessarily precludes the possibility that the argument’s conclusion is correct.
Fun Fact: This fallacy is a special form of the formal “Denying the Antecedent” fallacy. (See below.)
In a conjunction fallacy, one assumes that a set of specific and combined conditions is likelier to be true than a single condition, without concrete evidence that either is true. In this instance, the specific set of conditions may appear to be more true because it seems to represent certain facts that seem likely to connect with the premise. However, because these conditions are more specific and because these conditions combine multiple factors which must all be true in order for the entire statement to be true, it is mathematically less likely that the statement is true than would be a simpler proposition.
Classic Example: The Linda Problem
Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.
Which is more probable?
If you chose #2, you have committed the conjunction fallacy. The probability of them both being true is less than or equal to the probability of only one being true. We do not know, in fact, whether either of them is true.
Fun Fact: This fallacy is sometimes called the “Linda problem,” following from the first known example supplied by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman .
Sometimes also referred to as the fallacy of the inverse, denying the antecedent occurs when one deduces that because a valid premise leads to a valid conclusion, that the inverse can’t be true. In this case, the fallacy occurs when an individual presumes that because a premise and conclusion are true, the opposite of that premise must inherently mean that the conclusion is not true. In other words, one may make the valid statement that “If A, then B.” It would be a fallacy to determine that “If not A, then not B.”
Fun Fact: An argument based on denying the antecedent may actually be valid if the biconditional terminology is added to indicate “if and only if.” For instance:
This fallacy occurs under the condition that two premises cannot both be true at the same time. Under said condition, it is incorrect to presume that because A is not true, then B must be true. The primary flaw in this presumption is the preclusion of the possibility that neither premise is true.
Fun Fact: The conclusion of the sequence need not be false in order for Denying a Conjunct to be a logical fallacy. In the example above, it is possible that the speaker could get a job at a factory. But we can’t presume that this is the case simply because the speaker isn’t a pothead. It’s possible, for instance, that regardless of whether or not the speaker smokes pot, this individual lacks the training to be hired as a factory worker.
Also sometimes called existential instantiation, this fallacy occurs when one makes an argument about a category without first presenting any proof that such a category exists. In other words, it is not logical to attribute characteristics to that which doesn’t exist. Therefore, an argument which simply assumes existence while attributing such characteristics is based on an unproven premise.
(The problem here is that you may have a category of things that actually do not exist. What if there are no mermaids?)
Fun Fact: “All trespassers will be prosecuted” is an oft-used existential fallacy, one which fallaciously assumes without evidence that there are trespassers even though we can’t presume the existence of trespassers based on the information provided in the statement. This fallacy can be readily corrected when one adds the condition “if such-and-such exists.” Thus, while it would not fit so elegantly on a posted sign, it would not be a fallacy to say, “If trespassers are found on my property, they will be prosecuted.”
Referred to in Latin as non distributio medii, this fallacy is considered a syllogistic fallacy. A syllogism is a kind of argument which occurs when two propositions are asserted to be true and, therefore, may allow one to arrive at a particular conclusion through deductive reasoning. A syllogistic fallacy occurs when there is a logical flaw in either or both propositions which prevents one from deducing this conclusion. With the undistributed middle, a fallacy occurs when a “middle term,” which is needed to reach the desired conclusion, is not included in either of two propositions.
A valid form of this argument would be as follows:
Fun Fact: Technically, all fallacies of the Undistributed Middle are actually fallacies of either Affirming the Consequent or Denying the Antecedent. The primary distinction is that the fallacy of the undistributed middle may actually be corrected by distributing the middle, as it were. For instance, the following would be considered a fallacy:
By adding the third statement in this sequence, we have provided the “middle term” which may then be distributed to the conclusion.
Sometimes also called the epistemic fallacy, this occurs when one assumes that because one object has a certain property, and the other does not have this property, that they cannot be the same thing. This is a fallacious assumption because it concludes that one’s knowledge of the object is equivalent to the object itself. It erroneously precludes the possibility that the object in question has some properties which are unknown to the subject.
Fun Fact: The Masked-man Fallacy is actually an illicit use of Leibniz’s law. According to the law proposed by the German logician, if A is the same as B, then A and B share the same properties and are therefore indiscernible from one another.
Technically, a non sequitur is any invalid argument where a given premise does not logically support the given conclusion. In this way, the phrase non sequitur is practically synonymous with the word fallacy. However, in the context of a discussion on formal fallacies, a non-sequitur is a statement in which the premise has no apparent relationship with the conclusion, and therefore cannot be used to ascertain that this conclusion is true.
Fun Fact: A non sequitur is also a commonly used device in literature and especially comedy. Here, by pairing an expected premise with an unexpected and technically fallacious conclusion, a comedian may offer an absurd and humorous observation. Take, for example, this observation from stand-up comedian Steven Wright:
If you need to prepare for a debate, but feel clueless about how to even take notes in class, check out our guide to effective note-taking.
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